Organization Knowledge Essay Example for Free

Organization Knowledge EssayManaging information in todays emergence world is a tedious task. With excessive amount of data coming into systems daily, it has become imperative for knowledge organizers to follow certain guidelines if they argon to ensure truehearted and easy retrievals later on. The purpose of this paper is to explore the different techniques use which knowledge in a public library can be organized. For this purpose, I m assuming that I have been employed by a public library and have been designated the task of organizing their knowledge. Organization of knowledge in a public library is a to a biger extent delicate task than judicature of knowledge at any other school or college library. Fact is that in that repair are a greater number of users in a public library with entirely sorts of personalities. (ALA/PLA) Students, teachers, retirees, civilians, knowledge-seekers, tourists, etc are some of the different categories of users of a public library.Since all of these categories hold different perceptions as to the organization of knowledge and would expect a different kind of classification, it is important to use standardized organization techniques to address a maximum number of users in an appealing way. Classification of knowledge is a very ambiguous job. There are no pre-defined rules or any fix criteria that govern the classification of knowledge. It is to the discretion of the librarian or the manager operating in the situation to decide by them the way of organizing their knowledge.Given the task of organizing knowledge at the public library I would begin by classifying and sorting out the different bears according to the subject material they deal with. For example, books on art, literature, politics, religion, unison and science can all be identified into separate groups and thus can easily be sorted. This would be the preliminary and perhaps genius of the closely critical steps in the entire process. Having effectiv ely carried out a thorough classification during the initiatory process would mean simplification and reduced errors in the oncoming steps. Organization of Knowledge) The next step is to assign marks or bar tags to these bags in an intelligent manner.Books in a library need a fantastic credit number that comes in hand at the time of borrowing and return. These identification numbers would be distributed on the basis of their category with no discretion within each category. Since forward-looking books would be coming into the library every now and then, the identification numbers cannot follow a rule. This is because every time new book comes in, it would require other books labels to be re-assigned.This would not only be an impossible task, it would also negate the integrity of the data contained in the library. Therefore, it is far more important to ensure that these books are given intelligent tags identifying their category and a corresponding number so that the identificat ion number is a composite issue made up of characters and numbers. After successful grouping or rather preliminary classification of the books in the library, I would no focus on tell the books within each subset using the alphabetical order. Alphabetical order is a very tricky pattern to follow.There is no way a fastidious alphabetical order can be followed. Instead the name of the book and the authors name are both used for alphabetical ordering. For example, a book written by P. Gerrard titled On the Economics of War can be classified downstairs the P category or the O category. However, it depends on the librarian as to what is considered more important for him. I, being employed in a public library, would list this book under the P separate due to the fact that the title of the book starts with an insignificant word, in terms of a title.The word on has no significant literary value when expressing a book title. Thus, listing this book under the P category would make life e asier when it comes for searching. Similarly, placing the book titled In the Eye of the Mist by Pete K. Moss under the I category would have no intelligence associated with it. Intelligent categorization calls upon this book to be aimd under the P category owing to the first name of the author starting with this alphabet making it easier to trace this book around the library.The discretion with which similar groupings will be done depends to a great extent upon the title of the book. Unless the title of the book opens with a relatively rare word or with a noun, the categorization will be done using the name of the author. Although, this may look to b a relatively easy task to perform, it should be noted that often there are several authors of a book or either their name does not start with a single initial. Such cases are often perplexing and it creates the problem of a render strategy to follow.Ensuring uniformity in the organization of knowledge means that there would be fewer c hances of not finding a book in the steer it was thought to be in. (Organization of Knowledge)It also makes life easy for regular users of a library. Since public libraries serve the general public, there re several reads bound to be using the library on a routine basis. Such users get accustomed to the organization technique used within a library and after a considerable amount of time spent using the library, they themselves become equipped with the knowledge of finding a book easily.Often it has been seen that such multitude are there helping other naive users around the library when the librarian is not around or perhaps busy with another user. base on, since all of the books would by now be organized in their respective categories, it would be no longer confusing as to where a particular book should be placed. (What is Knowledge Organization? ) The next step would be to ensure that these books are all fed into a centralized system along with their shelf numbers. Inputting t he identification numbers would be a time-consuming task.Normally libraries have added information about books contained in a database. Inputting such information along with the identification number would mean several days hard work. Thus, the general recommendation is to scan the identification numbers on the book along with their location tag. The location tag is like the identification number. It informs the reader as to which shelf this book will probably be placed on. Logically numbering the shelves and then placing the train shelf tag on the book according to its position would eliminate a great deal of manual input.Scanned data will contain the label of the book and the location. Librarians in their free time can then update their database with additional information about these books. Thus, the final step would be to correctly place these books in the shelves that have been labeled onto them. Incorrect placement of these books will result in wasted activity during the orga nization of knowledge steps. Thus, it is imperative to ensure that these books are placed back in their respective shelves even after they are returned by an issuer.In conclusion, I would like to assert the fact that knowledge organization is a hefty, yet significant task when it comes to using a library. The books in a library are pretty much arranged in a very logical and orderly manner. It is this fact which makes a library usable and books accessible. Online entries of the locations of books into computers also assist librarians only because they know that the proper place of that book is the one pointed out by the computer. Librarians face a tough task ahead of them when they join public libraries and attempt to organize the knowledge there.

An Examination of Power and Politics in Organizations Essay Example for Free

An Examination of strength and Politics in Organizations EssayAbstractMany studies have examined the affects situation and administration have on validations. In look foring The University of Phoenixs Online program library and current web sites in pathation shows that power and politics dominates the work place and organizations more than any some other personal skill. In order to lead hotshot must have power to influence, set and enforce rules. Politics ar found in the majority of organizations, therefore it is crucial for employees to recognize the political high in their own organization and decide rather to participate and benefit from the validatorys of politics or not. An Examination of Power and Politics in OrganizationsPower and politics atomic number 18 dominating forces with in organizations. Organizations are lead by people with power. Power domiciliate be awarded by management to a person by title, legitimate power which is more formal and recognizable . Many leaders assume power through such things as knowledge, information or seniority. Through research located online and knowledge started from personal experiences a comparison was conducted on power and politics in organizations.The structure of a police squad up is important in determine how the team will perform. Each team member should contri juste skills to enhance the teams overall performance. Individual work habits and leadership styles will determine if the team has the skill to join together and over(p) their common goals. Teams create environments that bring out the best in each team member. A commitment to effectively communication information and ideas is a characteristic of an effective team.That is why the usage of coercion and politics to gain advantage over team members can be in truth destructive to team dynamics. Coercion is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary is to force one to act or think in a definite manner, to dominate, restrain, or control b y force. Often at work or in a group environment one might utilize this form of power to control dominanceover the group. This usage of power can often make other team members conform. In a successful team conformity is not a useful tactic. The usage of politics and coercion to gain advantage over team members is a danger to the success of the project. at a time team members realize that their input is not wanted more than likely they will withdraw from the process altogether. The USA today states, offices dynamics often adjustment from the usage of intimidation. (2004)For example a team must work together to process information for the desired results. Once a member takes advantage of a smear and use coercion to gain advantage it often leads to disaster. An example of such disaster happened recently within our team. A couple classes ago we had a member that was an extremely superior person. The person was very smart and well educated but had a problem checking the syllabus. Ev erybody in the team would understand the group assignments one way but she would always play devil advocate on the simplest details. She would use coercion to gain advantage over the other team members when we would meet to comp permite group assignments. The entire team was guilty of just going with the flow, not wanting to cause any problem. She was so convincing we felt she had to be correct The result was a low grade, because the content was not correct. So the team from that moment on did not allow that dominant personality use politics and power to manipulate the group any more.Organizational Behavior Ch. 15 pg. 3 defines power through information as Information power is the access to and/or the control of information. It is one of the most important aspects of legitimacy. In the majority organization the person with the information controls the manner in which the company operates. Expert power is the ability to control through the possession of knowledge, experience, or jud gment that the other person does not have but call for. This address of power is often used by subordinates. Judson, P. stated in general Energy although there are several directors and managers to organizations the experts of the business actually controls progress.In the populace works and engineering department there are several directors and managers. Hierarchical authority has put several rules, guide lines and manuals together through information they obtain for employees tofollow when completing tasks and goals. Supervisors and employees who actually work in the field have the knowledge and experience therefore tasks are completed in a varied manner than the manuals implement. The knowledge subordinates obtain through actually doing the work gives them more power and control in decision made about the organization.Politics are in all organizations and employees are affected in some way by politics. As stated in by Schermerhorn, Hunt and Osborn, any written report of pow er and influence inevitably leads to the subject of politics. For many, this word may conjure up thoughts of illicit deals, favors and special personal relationships. Although these actions are considered negative by the observer, the organization and the recipients view politics as positive. Organizations use politics to influence employees through promotions and rewards. The City of Houston Public Works and Engineering Department mainly promotes from with in the organization. This is a positive showing by management, because employees feel effort are rewarded.When you think of power and politics rarely are these images positive or inspiring. Corporate American today has fallen far from the one time logic that rewards are base simply on individual performance. Today more rewards are based on the managements need for power. This ability, power, to have someone else do something in the way you want it done and the precise time you need it done is an overwhelming and powerful force. There are several types of ruling powers that are used in todays businesses. Perhaps, the most preferred by employees is known as the Reward Power. The Reward Power enables a manager to express their appreciation to an individual or group for a job well done by offering the employee or team members a bonus.Such pleasantries can be in the form of a pay increase, personal praise, or advancement within the company. Unlike the Coercive Reward, believably the most disliked by associates, is a system in which the person in charge uses punishment to rule. Examples of such authority could be the withholding of deserve increases, denying a promotion, or even termination. Powers such as these are key elements to leadership success. Unfortunately, they seem to represent the seamy side of management (Schermerhorn, 2003). There are other powers used in organizational structures, such as legitimate, process,informational and representative. These power all vary in pattern, however, none are as contrasting as the Reward versus Coercive Power.How do these managers gain this power? Some might believe that office politics and networking are major components. The saying its not what you know, but who, does not stand truer than in todays corporate environments. An example of networking took place a couple of years ago in our department. At the time of this occurrence, Sam was a Financial Administrator for the West Region. He held a reputation for one of the best managed financial divisions. It seems that Sam had built a special friendship with the gross revenue manager for that region and he would do allow special payments or exceptions for his market without proper documentation to help his numbers increase. These favors were soon shared with other salespeople from other markets, and Sam immediately became best of buddies with everyone. A few months later a position for a supervisor was opened and Sam immediately recruited his comrades to countenance him in assuring this new position. His use of political power and networking is a prime example of the self absorbed need for dominance in todays managers. respectable Persuasion and Legitimate Power can have a strong impact on teams, management and others alike. First, lets look at the definition of ethical impression and legitimate power. Ethical persuasion is behavior that is morally accepted as good and right (Schermerhorn, gloss, pg. 6). Legitimate power is the extent to which a manager can use the right of command to control other people (Schermerhorn, gloss, pg.12). Ethical Persuasion is very different from legitimate power because when a manger is demanding that you complete a task, the task may not always be ethical. Each one of these behaviors can affect a team in many ways. For example, a management team is assigned a task that involves investigating an employees work history to locate any negative infractions or practices in order to change the employee. In the investigating process you learn that this person is a single-mother barely able to feed her two children.However, the company cannot afford to keep her for financial reasons and needs to lay her off. There are five members in the management team that are working on this case and three of them are females, these ladies do not feel that they aredisplaying ethical behavior and refuse to have anything to do with dismissing this single mother. In reality this woman has done nothing wrong, she was just the dwell one hired. In the meantime the CEO hears about the moral conflict and he gets very upset with the team members disobedience.Consequently, the CEO calls a meeting to let the management team know that he is the head of the company and team will do as he says whether they like it or not. If the team do not do as they are told, then they can give the single mother their positions because they will no longer be needed. In this situation the CEO is clearly using legitimate power, which is definitely not ethical howe ver, it is a job that still has to be done. Therefore, ethical behavior and legitimate power can and will eventually affect a management team. More often than not legitimate power will overrule ethical behavior.In conclusion research has proven sources of position and personal power, such as expert, information, reward, coercion and legitimate are used by employees to control, persuade and influence people and organizations. Politics are more commonly used by management to control and influence organizational behavior. Both politics and power have positive and negative affects on employees, organizations and communities.ReferencesLindsey, L. B. (2004, July 14) Office Dynamic Retrieved August 26, 2004 fromUniversity of Phoenix, EDSCO Host database, Websitehttp//phoenix.edu//libraryresourceStum, D.L. Strategy and Leadership. Maslow Revisited. Building theEmployee Commitment Pyramid Volume 29. University of Phoenix Custom Edition. Retrieved August 25, 2004, from ProQuest database.Judso n, P. (2004) Advantages of Experts Worldwide Energy. Vol. 15 Issue 8 p3. abstract retrieved August 28, 2004, from EBSCOhost data baseSchermerhorn, J.R., Hunt, J.G. Osburn, R.N. (2003) Organizational BehaviorNew York John Wiley Sons, Inc. Ch. 15 Power and Politics Pg 2-3

Self-Evaluations and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour

Self-Evaluations and Organisational Citizenship BehaviourBackground and RationaleThe current research is aimed at identifying whether there is a relationship between an individuals core self-evaluations and their organisational citizenship behaviour. Core-self evaluations ar defined as a personality trait that reflects how an individual views themselves. For example, people who have high core self-evaluations think overbearingly of themselves and atomic number 18 confident in their own abilities. Organisational citizenship behaviour is a term that encompasses anything positive and constructive that employees do, of their own choice, which supports co-workers and benefits the company such(prenominal) as going the extra mile. Over alone, this research is aimed at finding out whether core self-evaluations directly affect organisational citizenship behaviours or whether core self-evaluations affect an individuals level of seam satisfaction and organisational commitment, which in inc line affect their organisational citizenship behaviours. Being able to identify factors that affect organisational citizenship behaviour is beneficial to organisations, as they can use this information in both the selection and study of their employees. The literature relating to each design will be discussed.Core self-evaluationsThe concept of core self-evaluations (CSE) was introduced by Judge, Locke Durham (1997). They describe it as a broad concept representing the fundamental evaluations that people make about themselves and their functioning in their environment.In other words, it is a personality trait that reflects the extent to which an individual views themselves. CSE combines four, traditionally assort and distinct, personality traits self-esteem, general self-efficacy, emotional stability, and locus of control. This self-assessment reflects who the individual is and how the individual perceives themselves (Judge, Locke Durham, 1997). For example, individuals with a po sitive core self-evaluation perceive themselves in a positive way unheeding of the situation. They would be likely to see themselves as capable, worthy, and in control of their lives. However, individuals with a negative core self-evaluation would see themselves as less worthy than others, dwell on their failures, and see themselves as victims of their environment (Judge, Locke, Durham Kluger, 1998).Previous research on CSE have found that individuals with high levels of CSE have a variety of positive outcomes such as higher levels of subjective well-being (Judge, Erez, Thoresen, Bono, 2002), traffic satisfaction (Judge Bono, 2001), job fulfilance (Erez Judge, 2001), engagement (Rich, LePine, Crawford, 2010), and popularity (Scott Judge, 2009). They likewise report lower levels of stress and conflict, cope more effectively with setbacks, and better capitalise on advantages and opportunities (Erez Judge, 2001).Core self-evaluations and Job attitudesThere is evidence to su ggest that there is a relationship between core self-evaluations and job attitudes. In this case job attitudes incorporates both job satisfaction and organisational commitment. The relationship between core self-evaluations and job satisfaction has been researched by various authors in which a consistent and significant relationship has been found (Judge, Locke Durham, 1997Judge, Locke, Durham, Kluger, 1998 Bono Judge, 2003 Dormann, Fay, Zapf Frese, 2006). Furthermore, Stumpp, Hlsheger, Muck Maier (2009) looked at the relationship between core self-evaluations and found that core self-evaluations were related to both job satisfaction and organisational commitment.Organisational Citizenship BehavioursOrganisational citizenship behaviours (OCBs) are voluntary employee behaviours that are not formally reinforcered by the organisation, but contribute to either the success of the whole organisation or to the well-being of other employees (Borman Motowidlo, 1993). Examples of OCBs i nclude assistanting co-workers with their work, helping new members of the organisation, talking favourably about the organisation to outsiders, and attending non-mandatory functions that help the organisations image (Lee Allen, 2002). Research on OCBs have shown that they are important as they contribute significantly to both individual level (Rotundo Sackett, 2002) and organisational-level performance outcomes (Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, Blume, 2009).Organisational Citizenship Behaviours and Job attitudesThere has been a relatively large amount of research into the main effects of job attitudes on OCBs. Various meta-analyses have found that job satisfaction and organisational commitment are all positively related to OCBs (Dalal, 2005LePine, Erez, Johnson, 2002Organ Ryan, 1995). Furthermore, job attitudes have been conceptually linked with OCBs (Bowling, Wang Li, 2011). It is thought that that the principle of reciprocity (Cialdini, 2001Gouldner, 1960) and social excha nge theory (Cropanzano, Howes, Grandey, Toth, 1997) can divine a positive relationship between job attitudes and OCBs. For example, employees who have positive job attitudes, such as high job satisfaction, are expected to reward their organisations for giving them a good job environment, by engaging in OCBs (Dalal, 2005LePine etal., 2002Organ Ryan, 1995).The current study is interested in testing whether core self-evaluations moderates the effects of job attitudes on OCBs. As research has suggested that positive self-concept contributes to ones general level of initiative and self-confidence (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, Vohs, 2003), job attitudes may therefore be more strongly related to OCBs for employees who have positive core self-evaluations (CSE).Core self-evaluations and Organisational Citizenship BehavioursAlthough scarcely examined in previous research, CSEs are expected to be positively related to OCBs. The rationale throne this is that positive self-concept contri butes to an individuals general level of initiative and beliefs about their general level of competence (Baumeister etal., 2003). Therefore, engaging in current OCBs requires the individual to discipline social interaction and to be confident about their level of interpersonal competence (Bowling, Wang Li, 2011). For example, offering help to a struggling co-worker or volunteering to assist a new employee. Individuals with a positive CSE are more likely to engage in OCBs that incorporate high levels of social interaction for two reasons they do not fear social rejection and they know that they are socially competent. Other types of OCB require the individual to be confident about their beliefs and have the drive to detain those beliefs (Bowling, Wang Li, 2011). These OCBs may include defending the organisation when others criticise it, communicating ideas to help improve the organisation, or showing loyalty to the organisation. Again, individuals with a positive CSE are more li kely to engage in OCBs that require this form of initiative, because they are more likely to have a high level of self-confidence. Therefore, a certain level of initiative and self-confidence may be required to perform most OCBs.Reasons for ResearchThe current study will expand on the animate CSE literature in two ways. Firstly, it will examine the relationship between CSE and OCBs. To date, few studies have identified whether CSE affects OCBs. There is a clear conceptual posterior to expect that CSE will be positively related to OCBs as many OCBs require personal initiative and self-confidence, both of which are enhanced by positive self-evaluations (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, Vohs, 2003). Furthermore, the constituent traits of CSE have been linked with OCBs. For example, self-esteem (Bowling, Eschleman, Wang, Kirkendall, Alarcon, 2010), internal locus of control (OBrien Allen, 2008) and emotional stability (Small Diefendorff, 2006) are all positively related to OCBs. It w ill also examine whether there is an interaction between CSE and overall job attitude (job satisfaction and organisational commitment) and test whether this moderates the CSEOCB relationship.The current research seeks to examine whether individuals with high core self-evaluations perform more organisational citizenship behaviours or whether there are moderating effects of job satisfaction and organisational commitment

Strategies for Small Molecule Activation

Strategies for Sm each Molecule ActivationIntroduction Developing romance strategies for small molecule activation is the substance aim of contact action reasearch. One approach that recently gained prominence in catalytic activation of constituent(a) molecules is photoredox catalysis. telescopic crystalise photoredox catalysis has risen to the larboard of current organic chemistry as a remarkable way to aid virtuoso electron transfer (SET) processes with organic substrates upon photoexcitation1. This technique relies on the quality of metal complexes and organic dyes to undergo SET with unmistakable light2.The commonly employed transition metal ground photocatalyst utilised to harness the packets of energy carried by open light are polypyridyl complexes of ruthenium and iridium, named as tris(2,2-bipyridine)ruthenium (II) or Ru(bpy)32+ (Figure 1).Figure 1. Structures of common transition metal photocatalysts.These complexes give stable, long-lived worked up states (f or Ru (bpy)32+*, = 110 ns)3 when irradiated with plain light of electromagnectic spectrum4. This relatively long lived excited state may allow bimolecular electron-transfer chemical reactions through outer sphere transfer, both by the quenching of excited state photocatalyst and deactivation pathways5. The quenching good deal be accomplished in both oxidative and reductive ways (Figure 2), which offers this mode of catalysis flexibility.Figure 2. aerophilous and reductive quenching cycles within photocatalysis.Moreover, varying the metal (Ru, Ir, Cu, Cr,etc.) or ligands steer to foreseeable changes in redox potentials, enabling customization of the catalyst to ones needs. In contrast to sheer approaches these photochemical methods offer surprisingly mild conditions to stem turn reactions, as they typically operate at ambient temperature, utilize bench-stable reagents and display full(prenominal) degree of in operation(p) group tolerance.6The lengthened application of over t light photocatalysts consider been recognized in the field of inorganic and materials chemistry. In particular, these catalysts have been gear up to be actively decomposing water into hydrogen and oxygen7 and reducing snow dioxide to methane.8 Also, they have been employed in (i) as components in dye sensitized solar cells9 and organic light-emitting diodes,10 (ii) in polymerisation reactions,11 and (iii) in photodynamic therapy.12Until recently the reports of use these complexes as photocatalysts in organic deduction were scarce. Their limited investigation was very surprising, as single electron, group processes offer a unique pathway and reactivity to unionise C-C stick to which are complementary to the closed shell, two electron processes.13 In the last decade detailed studies form the Yoons , MacMillan sand Stephensons groups have shown the application of Ru(bpy)32+ as photoredox catalyst to perform crucial C-C bond forming reactions such as 2+2 cycloaddition,14 -alk ylation of aldehydes15 and reductive dehalogenation of trigger off aryl halides.16 These quality work of above groups have rejuvenated the interests of many researchers in this field, triggering the diverse ideas into the utility of photoredox catalysis as conceptually tonic approach to synthetic organic reaction development.The application of obvious light photoredox catalysis in organic synthesis revolves around its ability to engineer unusual bond constructions which are non easily formed by established protocols. For instance, overall neutral redox reactions can be performed by photoredox catalysis, as both the oxidant and reductants can be retortd within the same reaction vessel. clear light photoredox catalysis has been proved to be convenient in designing reactions, which needs gain and removal of electrons at disparate centres in a reaction mechanism. In contrast to these methods, others require stoichiometric quantity of both oxidant and reductants, which many times a re incompatible with each other. Radical intermediates generated from single electron transfer (SET) events have been shown to have different reactivity patterns fundamentally different from those accessed through the ground state of catalyst.17 Harnessing these intermediates by content other than photoredox catalysis are often challenging or requires conditions which are incompatible with substrates.It is noteworthy to mention, Ru (II) and Ir (III) based photocatalysts are widely purposed to generate ingraineds for use in a diverse range of ingrained reactions, and most of these reactions occur under mild conditions such as room temperature without the need of activated rootage generators (e.g., azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN), BEt3), and toxic reagents (e.g., Bu3SnH), and in many cases, high temperature. The source of diaphysis typically used are commercially available household light bulbs, which has substantial good over specialized equipment employing high-energy ultravio let (UV) light. Moreover, organic molecules generally do not show absorbance in visible region, so there is little hazard of unwanted side reactions that might occur from the photoexcitation of the substrate itself. Even, the low photocatalyst loading of 1 mole % or less is sufficient enough to achieve high spiritual rebirths. These all collectively have proven that visible light mediated photoredox catalysis to be a uniquely well-suited in designing safer and more sustainable strategies for synthesising more efficient materials and reducing waste streams. Further incentivizing the design and application of novel visible light-mediated methodologies toward both natural and non-natural scaffolds of interest to pharmaceutical and agrochemical domains.18This review highlights the preceding work done on the use of Ru (II) and Ir (III) transition metal complexes as photoredox catalysts to promote C-C bond forming reactions in organic synthesis. Specifically, there is gigantic emphasi s on the applications of visible light photoredox catalysis which have enabled the positive synthesis of natural harvest-feasts and related molecules, focusing on a range of regnant varietys that include reductive coupling, indole functionalization, radical come down, ATRA reactions, trifluoro m ethyl radical groupation and selective C-O bond sectionalization.Reductive DehalogenationReductive deahalogenation refers to process in which a C-X bond is reduced to a C-H bond where X denotes halogens. These classes of reactions have attracted attention of organic chemists all over the world due to its prime importance in rational organic synthesis. For instance a significant number of examples of these reactions can be found in nature, where enzymatic dehalogenation is performed by microorganism present in soil to check the concentration of lipophilic halogenated species.19 thither has been a whole library of reducing clays developed to carry out reductive dehalogenation successful ly, which practically guarantees the existence of specific reagents for specific substrate.Organo-tin hydride has been the most used reagent in the past to perform reductive dehalogenation in laboratory as well as in field of synthesis, as it has been proven capable for both radical generation and kinetic radical trapping.20 By far, the system of tin hydride is tributyltin hydride (TBTH) (AIBN) is the most utilized for radical-promoted dehalogenations of organic halides.21 However, there are three main problems in use of TBTH. First, toxicity of tin rule out its use in pharmaceutical synthesis. Second, there are lots of problem associated with the purification of reaction mixture from tributyltin residues. Third, TBTH is not a stable compound, even after careful storage it is likely to steadily decompose.22 It is the toxicity, that has almost precluded its use in a wide range of reusable radical reactions in organic synthesis.In recent years, the search for superior alternatives t o TBTH has been the central goal of radical chemists. A replacement reagent needs to overcome all three problems mentioned above while at the same time an exhibiting similar reactivity and an ease of use. Earlier work of Fukuzumi and Tanaka focused on use of Ru(bpy)32+ as a photo redox catalyst to promote the reductive dehalogenation of phenacyl bromides23 and reductive dimerization of benzyl bromide24 respectively (Scheme 1), has shown that the application of visible light photoredox catalysis to access radicals can offer a promising solution to this problem.Scheme 1. Reductive dehalogenation of phenacyl bromide (A) and reductive dimerization of benzyl bromide (B).But, it was the efforts of Narayanam and co-workers, focussed on developing the novel means for accessing radical chemistry while avoiding the toxicity and problems associated with tin hydride, has laid a milestone in development of a tin-free reductive dehalogenation systems (Scheme 2.).25Scheme 2. Photoredox catalytic r educing and potential C-C bond formation.In their primary investigation, Narayanam et al. used a system consisting Ru(bpy)32+ as a photocatalyst, iPr2NEt as major hydrogen atom source and visible light to successfully perform the reductive debromination. In the net transformation, the 3-bromopyrroloindoline (7) was reduced to pyrroloindoline (8) as single product, with the addition of Hantzsch ester or formic acid to the catalytic system maked debrominated product in 90% yield (Scheme 3).Scheme 3. Initial attempt for reductive dehalogenation.In further development of general tin-free visible light mediated dehalogenation protocol, a range of different activated alkyl bromides and chlorides were tested which afforded the corresponding dehalogenated product in good to comminuted yield. Although, the un-activated aryl and alkenyl iodides were completely unreactive, as it was expected due to their exceptional(a) negative reduction potentials (-2.24 V Vs SCE for iodobenzene).26 The so lution to this problem lied in the use of Ir(III) based photo-catalysts instead of Ru(II), which offered more reducing power than Ru(bpy)32+,and the dehalogenation of less activated alky, vinyl and aryl iodides with good functional group tolerance was achieved using oxidative quencing cycle of fac-Ir(bpy)3 (Scheme 4).27 Scheme 4. Reductive dehalogenation of activated and unactivated halides.Furst et al. used this practical strategy for reductive dehalogenation for a further development of more challenging intermolecular C-C bond forming protocols, which demonstrated an efficient way to promote intermolecular additions using visible light mediated photoredox catalysis. Furst et al. reported a facile coupling of indole with malonate radicals, as malonate-like motifs are common C2-subsitutents in bioactive indole based alkaloids such as actinophyllic acid (9) and undulifoline (10).Using this procedure, an extensive range of indole and pyrrole derivatives were synthesized in good yields by employing (1) as the photocatalyst and N,N-diphenyl-4-methoxyaniline as the reductive quencher (Scheme 5).28 Further, this protocol was extended by Stephenson et al. to synthesize quaternary carbon centres adjacent to C2 of indole based alkaloids by employing more challenging tertiary malonate radicals.29 This transformation was accomplished by directly reducing bromomalonate (11) via oxidative quenching of more reducing fac-Ir(bpy)3 photocatalyst, providing targeted quaternary carbon centres in good to high yields (Scheme 6).Scheme 5. Intermolecular radical addition of secondary radicals to electron-rich heterocyclesScheme 6. Intermolecular radical addition of tertiary radicals to electron-rich heterocycles.Atom absent Radical Addition (ATRA)These transformations was graduation observed by Kharasch30 in 1940s, over the time atom transfer radical addition sparked the interest of organic chemists, as it offers the potential for uniquely efficient and economical approach for dua l functionalization of olefins. This functionalization leaved a tremendous impact in organic chemistry, and have also found wide applications in industry and academic research. Similar to the intermolecular malonate-indole coupling mentioned above, these transformations are redox neutral, theoretically eliminating the need for additives, which in terms, reduces the likelihood of deleterious off-target reactivity.The most important application of atom-transfer radical addition reactions is inclusion of fluorinated functional groups into molecules, as the addition of these groups has a strong impact on biological properties and bioavailability of bioactive compounds.31 In 2011 Stephenson, et al. for the first time reported visible light mediated ATRA reactions, proving this methodology as an efficient way to improve the overall performance of this kind of reaction compared to authorised radical initiation conditions. This synthetic approach was trenchant for the preparation of a wide range of perflourohalogenated substrates from unactivated alkenes by using Ru(bpy)32+ as the photocatalyst combined with sodium ascorbate as an electron donor (Scheme 7).32Scheme 7. Atom transfer radical addition mediated by photoredox catalyst.A similar kind of transformation also providing halotrifluoromethylated product was reported by Han et al. (Scheme. 8)33 using triflouromethanesulfonyl chloride as the triflouromethyl source and visible light in presence of Ru (II) photocatalyst (1). Using this protocol, the variety of substrates including mono, di-, and tri-substituted unactivated alkenes went under trifluoromethylation in excellent yields.Scheme 8. Trifluoromethyl chlorination of disubstituted and internal alkenes.Radical Cascades Radical cascades are one of the most powerful tools for accessing complex structures in single step if substrate is stable under the for radical initiation conditions.34 One of the earliest examples of radical cascade was reported by Stokes et al .35 is intermolecular addition of Sn-radical to acetylenes, he also examine the regioselectivity of vinyl radical cyclizations onto C=C double bond (Scheme 9). Cyclization cascades initiated by intermolecular addition of Sn radical to alkyne can be distinguished between reactions where tin-moiety retained in the final product with those where Sn radical essentially acted as a catalyst, which was later removed by the homolytic cleavage of labile C-Sn bond.Scheme 9. Radical cyclization sequence, triggered by regioselective addition of tin radical.Nowadays, because of the recognized toxicity associated with organotin compounds, the focus has been shifted toward the development of alternative tin-free and less environmentally problematic methods for radical cyclizations. Visible light photocatalysis has offered a powerful and sustainable tool for the development of young catalytic radical cascade reactions due their unique ability to facilitate formation of various reactive radicals and radical ions in mild and environmental friendly conditions. Various structurally diverse carbocycles and heterocycles from basic and readily available materials have been synthesis by using this protocol.The augmentation of radical cascade cyclization and visible light photoredox catalysis approach has inspired radical chemists around the world to develop novel and efficient methods for synthesis of important heterocyclic motif that are prevalent in nature products exhibiting a wide range of bioactivites. One highly effective method for radical cascade, generating tetracyclic fused ring was reported by Furst et al. where they used visible light mediated protocol to synthesize tetracycle from bromomalonate and tricyclic compound from alkyne in good yields as a single diastereomers36 (Scheme 10.).Scheme 10. Intramolecular radical cascades.Xiao et al. further extended the application of visible light mediated radical cascade reactions in synthesis chromam-2ones and dihydroquinoline -2-ones based scaffolds, as these are omnipresent components in biologically active natural products and pharmaceutical drugs37. They reported a unseasoned type of radical cascade reaction between photogenerated -amino radicals and acyloyl ester- and acrylamide-tethered aroylhyrazones.38 (Scheme 11).Scheme 11. Photoredox catalyzed radical cascade reaction of -amino radicals.In addition, they developed an oxidant free N-radical cascade reaction of , -unsaturated hydrazones by incorporating visible light photoredox and cobalt catalysis to obtain dihydropyrazole-fused benzosultams (Scheme 12),39 that has never been reported previuosly.Scheme 12. Visible light photocatalytic N-radical cascade reaction of benzosultam synthesis.Recently, Xu et al. devised a precious cascade annulation by generating acyl radicals from abundant acyl chlorides under visible light mediated photoredox catalysis which then trigger offed a cascade cyclization of 1,7 enynes (Scheme 13).40Scheme 13. Visible lig ht induced cascade cyclization of 1,7-eynes with acyl chlorides.Applications in Total SynthesisIn the history of organic synthesis, indole based alkaloids grabbed much more attention because of their teemingness in natural products and biologically active compounds, and they have always been interesting and challenging synthetic targets. The unique ability of visible light mediated photoredox catalysis in forming key C-C bond granted access to numerous applied intermediates that facilitated synthesis of these diverse natural products.In 2011, Stephenson and co-workers reported the asymmetric synthesis of (+)-gliocladin C (21), a natural product with interesting cytotoxic activity (Scheme 14.)41 starting from L-tryptophan, the important intermediate C3 bromopyrroloindoline (17) was synthetically prepared by standard transformations using Boc-D-tyrptophan methyl ester (16). The vital step in the synthesis was the formation of C-C coupled intermediate (18), which was accomplished by r eductive dehalogenation-arylation process triggered by blue light irradiation on substrate in the presence of aldehyde (22), photocatalyst (1) and NBu3 as a quencher. This intermediate was converted into natural product in 7 high-yielding locomote, which was more efficient than the prior reported 21-step structural synthesis of (21) starting isatin with and overall yield of 4%.42Scheme 14. Total synthesis of (+)-gliocladin C.Another more recent example is the synthesis of biologically active alkaloids drimentines A, F and G (Scheme 15.).43 by Li and co-workers utilising reductive C-C bond forming strategy. In this example, the heterocycle (25) was coupled with acceptor (24) by intermolecular radical 1,4-addition to generate the important intermediate (26), which facilitated the product (27) -(29) in good yields.Scheme 15. Total synthesis of drimentines A, F, GTargeting Pharmaceutically Relevant Scaffolds The unique capabilities of photoredox catalysis is an access to variety of f luoroalkyl radical species at late stage modification of therapeutic leads. Fluorinated functional groups (trifluoromethyl group in particular) have become increasingly popular over the decades44, because these motifs have outstanding on the molecules physiochemical properties, making them more selective, increasing their efficacy, or making them easier to adminster. Photoredox catalysis can provide an approach tailored on industrial scales by using abundantly available CF3 sources and eliminating the need of pre-functionalized substrates. This chemistry was readily translated to multigram scales for a number of substrates, one most important example of this strategy is the synthesis of trifluoromethylated 2-chloropyridine (32) (Scheme. 16) a vital synthon in production of anti-infective agents at Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals Inc.45Scheme 16. Preparation of Boehringer-Ingelheim intermediate.A novel redox system comprising pyridine N-oxide and trifluoroacetic acid was design ed by Beatty at el. where C-C activation was achieved by pyridine N-oxide, a redox trigger, which could in situ generate modified trifluoroacetate shifting the redox potential of trifluoroacetate lower, within the reach of Ru(bpy)32+ photoredox catalyst.46ORL-1 Antagonist Intermediate Opioid receptor-like 1 (ORL-1) antagonist which is soon under the development for the cure of depression and obesity,47 has a gem-difluorobenzyl functional group around the spirocyclic piperidine (34), the earlier synthetic route consisted a total of 8 steps starting from (33) with an overall yield of 28%.48 Futhermore, this sequence included AIBN initiated radical bromination, and most challenging step was the benzylic fluorination by using 2.6 equiv. of Deoxo-Fluor 9 (specialised fluorinated reagent) as a fluoride source, which remained problematic as it required the use of pre-functionalized substrates through classical nucleophilic or electrophilic fluorination. Radical rearrangements reactions ha ve demonstrated the strategic benefits in its synthesis when compared to this method.49Visible light mediated radical Smiles rearrangement was developed to address the challenging synthesis of gem difluoro group ORL-1 antagonist from fluorinated thiophene (35), which could be produced from difluoro-ethanol from readily available corresponding ethyl ester (Scheme 17) reported by Douglas et al.50 This strategy has solved the problem of high number of steps and overcome the overall low yield and use of specialized fluorinated reagents. This new 5-step synthetic route eliminated the undesirable feature of previous synthetic route, the challenging benzylic defluorination could be accomplished by switching a key transformation to a C-C bond instead of a C-F bond formation.Scheme 17. Previously reported route towards ORL-1 antagonists and new photochemical radical smiles rearrangement route.Biofeedstock Processing Biomass set itself asunder from other renewable resources, since the energy it contains is stored in the form of chemical bonds, which allow biomass to be used for several purposes other than generating electricity and heat, such as politic fuel and value-added chemicals. In particular, depolymerisation of lignin50, one of the most abundant feedstock for aromatic commodity compounds, which has attracted a lot of attention in recent years.Lignin is a stable, branched biopolymer which is a part of the plant cell wall and is primarily responsible for providing rigidity and protection against environmental conditions. Primarily, it is composed of three different types of cinnamyl alcohols coupled together to produce a various array of motifs inside of the polymer chain (Scheme 18). The multiple connectivity and stability has hindered attempts to efficiently isolate value compounds through the degradative processing.51The most sensible point of start in lignin humiliation is -O-4 linkage, as this is the most abundant (45-65%). Photoredox catalysis provides mi ld means of cleaving these critical bonds by a two-step procedure, which includes the selective oxidation of the alpha carbon followed by photochemical reductive cleavage.52Scheme 18. Two steps protocol for degradation of lignin model system.This strategy could be used for efficient degradation of a range of lignin model systems, isolation of the fragmentation products in excellent yields by employing photocatalyst 3 under the reductive quenching conditions.Conclusions. Photoredox catalysis with Ru (II) and Ir (I) metal complexes has recently received widespread attention as a tool for synthetic chemists, and it has been applied to the development of wide range of new C-C bond forming reactions. The utility of photoredox catalysis arises not form its ability to promote C-C bond formation, but rather from its ability to generate a diverse array of reactive via single-electron transfer. As shown, these species include electrophilic -carbonyl radicals, tert-malonate radicals, -amino ra dicals, acyl radicals and trifluoromethyl radicals. These intermediates have been used to develop reactions as varied as reductive dehalogenation, indole functionalization, atom transfer radical additions, radical cascades and Smiles rearrangement.Also, photoredox catalysis has been proved as valuable tool for the synthesis of various biologically active compounds and their derivatives, as demonstrated by its application in the total synthesis of gliocladin C, drimenties A, F, G, and pharma relevant scaffolds. In each of these syntheses, simple and typically inert functionalities in the starting materials are transformed into reactive intermediates upon single electron transfer. These powerful transformations are not only redefining the synthetic strategies, but it has also changed the face of radical chemistry a fundamental area in organic chemistry which mostly accessible using hazardous radical reagents. These robust class of reactions have inspired many researchers in designing and developing novel approaches to synthetic targets. The growth of visible light phototredox catalysis is not only significant on its own right, also bodes well for the future of organic synthesis.ReferencesNicholls, T. P. Leonori, D. Bissember, A. C., Applications of visible light photoredox catalysis to the synthesis of natural products and related compounds. Natural Product Reports 2016, 33 (11), 1248-1254.James J. Douglas, J. D. N. Kevin P. C., Enabling Novel Photoredox Reactivity via Photocatalyst Selection. Aldrichimica 2014, 47, 15-25.Kalyanasundaram, K., Photophysics, photochemistry and solar energy conversion with tris(bipyridyl)ruthenium(II) and its analogues. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 1982, 46, 159-244.Juris, A. Balzani, V. Barigelletti, F. Campagna, S. Belser, P. von Zelewsky, A., Ru(II) polypyridine complexes photophysics, photochemistry, eletrochemistry, and chemiluminescence. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 1988, 84, 85-277.Juris, A. Balzani, V. Belser, P. von Ze lewsky, A., Characterization of the Excited State Properties of Some New Photosensitizers of the Ruthenium (Polypyridine) Family. Helvetica Chimica Acta 1981, 64 (7), 2175-2182.Tucker, J. W. Stephenson, C. R. J., Shining Light on Photoredox Catalysis scheme and Synthetic Applications. The Journal of Organic Chemistry 2012, 77 (4), 1617-1622.(a) Graetzel, M., Artificial photosynthesis water cleavage into hydrogen and oxygen by visible light. Accounts of Chemical Research 1981, 14 (12), 376-384.(b) Meyer, T. J., Chemical approaches to artificial photosynthesis. Accounts of Chemical Research 1989, 22 (5), 163-170.Takeda, H. Ishitani, O., Development of efficient photocatalytic systems for CO2 reduction using mononuclear and multinuclear metal complexes based on mechanical studies. Coordination Chemistry Reviews 2010, 254 (3-4), 346-354.Kalyanasundaram, K. Grtzel, M., Applications of functionalized transition metal complexes in photonic and optoelectronic devices. Coordination Chemist ry Reviews 1998, 177 (1), 347-414.Lowry, M. S. Bernhard, S., Synthetically Tailored Excited States Phosphorescent, Cyclometalated Iridium(III) Complexes and Their Applications. Chemistry A European Journal 2006, 12 (31), 7970-7977.(a) Laleve, J. Blanchard, N. Tehfe, M.-A. Morlet-Savary, F. Fouassier, J. P., Green medulla oblongata Light Source Induced Epoxy Cationic polymerisation under Air Using Tris(2,2-bipyridine)ruthenium(II) and Silyl Radicals. Macromolecules 2010, 43 (24), 10191-10195.(b) Fors, B. P. Hawker, C. J., Control of a Living Radical Polymerization of Methacrylates by Light. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 2012, 51 (35), 8850-8853.Howerton, B. S. Heidary, D. K. Glazer, E. C., Strained Ruthenium Complexes Are Potent Light-Activated Anticancer Agents. Journal of the American Chem

Behaviour Of Individuals In A Group Education Essay

Behaviour Of Individuals In A Group Education EssayIntroductionThe line of study and understanding of undivided and crowd behaviour, and patterns of construction in order to help improve makeupal fulfilance and effectiveness. (Robbins, 2007). Organisation is single of the most important parts and serves important postulate of the society. So the decisions and actions of management in organisations have an increasing impact on individuals, other(a) organisations and the community (Mullins, 2008). then(prenominal)ce it is important, to understand how organisation functions. For that we need to learn the behaviour of muckle, how do they behave and perform as members of a assemblage and as individuals.This report is discussing the performance and behaviour of an individual while constructing in a congregation. The report emphasise on three interrelated parts which atomic number 18 concerned with describing the physical composition of the root, differences betwixt math ematical separate and team, how individual perform in a assembly and their performance as an individual, and finally some conclusions on importance of the behaviour and performance of an individual in a group.GroupsGroups are any number of tidy sum who interact with unmatchable another are psychologically aware of one another and perceive themselves to be a group (Schein, 1988). A group is two or more individuals interacting with each other to accomplish a common goal (Ivancevich, Konopaske, Matteson, 2008). Any ways groups are not same as that of teams. Teams are mature groups which are motivated and they are interdependent on each other for a common goal. Team faeces be of fixed size but groups contribute defer on purpose of the hunt. All teams groundwork be a group but all groups firet be a team.Advantages and disadvantages of a groupAdvantagesLearn to listen others point of view of other member in a group and take their considerations.Learn a lot from individuals pers onalities.Learn group co-ordination and Mutual understanding.Learn to divide work and complete the work faster.Learn to interact with different kind of plurality.DisadvantagesIf there are many people in a group then there whitethorn be group conflict. there may be different opinions on doing same thing so some whiles it takes time to start the work.E very(prenominal) member of a group should know its design and should work accordingly.Self esteem of a person layabout be heart while his opinion is not taken or not implemented.Why do people gist groups?Humans are genial animal, they cant stay alone. They want someone to interact with each other. People join clubs, different groups and societies just for interacting with each other. This is humans psychology that they cant suss out communicating with each other. Working in a group is an excellent way of building the effective interpersonal transactionhip that organisation needs (Heller, 1997). There are some of other reasons wh y people like to be in a group and they are Security, Task achievement, Social needs and military group (Ellis Penny, 2000). People feel natural rubberty while they are in a group for an example working in an organisation some decision has to be taken people feel safe to take decision in a group instead than taking individually. Task achievement is also a main reason why people join groups there are many task which cannot be done alone. Some people join groups for societal needs say by forming a group they are forming some special relationship. Power is the main reason people form a group for an instance if many people are doing a particular talk it can be done easily but thats not true for individuals.Reasons for formation of a group in an organisationPeople join groups because groups are able to accomplish things that individuals cannot accomplish working alone and working in group fulfils the social needs of people. The functional supposition of the formation posits that g roups are the only way to survive the demands of the environment (Stewart, Manz, Sims, 1999).Environmental factorsAs jobs become more thickening due to technology or other factors, groups become a good way to handle the complexity (Levi, 2001). Moreover, joint management has a strong aptitude to attract capital beyond the founders or owners resources from private and venture capital backers (Timmons, 1999). I feel some work in an organization cant be done by individual it requires a group of people for better understanding of a complex situation.Poor performance, crisis and survivalThe urge to try something red-hot and to change the course of action increases when the performance is low (Boone, C van Olffen, W vanWitteloostuijn, A De Brebander, B, 2004). Hence there is a fear of failure when a individual is working alone but thats not always true when groups are working. People know their own responsibilities while working in a group and they try to fulfil each and all(prenomin al) thing.GrowthA small business owner may not have the sufficient familiarity and skills to ensure significant organizational growth (Weinzimmer, 1997). When the watertight sizeincreases, more people are needed for effective management (Weltman, 2001). Groups are responsible for the development of an organisation. Hence group should always think about the growth of the organisation.Profitability and better firm performanceThe benefits of teamwork in management relate to both work and firm performance (e.g. (Hunsaker, 2001 Eisenstat Cohen, 1990)No human is perfect, but groups can be. Human has some or other areas where they cannot work. But while working in a group human can hide their weaknesses.Social issuesCompanionship can help in problem solving and to diminish demanding working conditions as support arises among the team members (Hunsaker, 2001). wiz of the most compelling reasons why people join groups is because they believe membership in a particular group will help the m to satisfy one or more important needs.Group normsAccording to Sherif (1936), norms are the customs, traditions, rules, values, fashions, and any other criteria of conduct which are standardised as a consequence of fall into place with individuals. Later, (Steers, 1981) called norms a shared group standard which regulates member behaviour. Norms also have been identified as the unceremonial rules that groups adopt to regulate and regularise members behaviour (Feldman, 1984).Although norms largely exist in the formal context of group functioning, rarely appear in create verbally form, and are seldom discussed, they still have a very powerful and consistent influence on group behaviour (Hackman, 1976). After analysing all this definitions I feel norms are rules which are do by individuals which work in a group for its smooth working.Norms are made by a group, so there can be different norms for different types of a group. For example, there are groups of people who are in a uni versity every group will have its own norms. Secondly, there are various degrees of bankers acceptance by a group member. That means some norms are followed by every group member and other norms are restricted to some people only. Some of the norms are also applied all group members and some norms are applied for few people in a group. For an instance, a group is working in an organisation, some norms are followed by all group members and some norms are only for the position holders, say managers in a group (Ivancevich, Konopaske, Matteson, 2008).Different types of groupOrganisation has two different types of groups they are formal groups and folksy groups. The major difference amongst both this types of groups is that there is friendship between the members of the group. In informal group the entire member knows each other so they know what strength and weaknesses each individual has according to that everyone can work out knowing each other. And formal groups are made by the o rganisations they dont know each other they are formed for a special goal. A planned system of cooperative effort in which each participant has a recognized role to play and duties or tasks to perform (Katz, 1965). These types of groups are made only for smooth functioning of an organisation. People dont know each other so there are less chance of bump friendly environment, and getting better results. According to Palazzolo (1981), a collection of individual whose common work experience result in the development of a system of interpersonal relations beyond those expected of them by values of their employment. In this type of group people know each other and they are friends with common goals so they can coordinate with each other without any problem. There is no communication gap between the people, so work can be done in better way. The only problem with this type of group is that it has friendly environment so many propagation it does not work for a organisation. But informal groups are better than formal groups.GroupthinkA mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a sticky in-group, when the members strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realisticallyAppraise alternative courses of action (Janis, 1972). With the idea of Groupthink group behaviour and performance can be increased. Groupthink can instal any kind of decisions in an organization. As we have notice individual does not take any decisions, all the decisions are been taken by the organisation are discussed before implementing it. This is because all individual has different way of thinking in an organisation so everyone should know what is going on and can get ideas from everyone. By doing this the chances of implementing a risk gets decrease and on one in an organisation can regret the fact after implementing the new project.Numbers of specific symptoms on groupthink are as fallows.There is an illusion of invulnerability with excessive optimism an d risk-taking.The discounting or discrediting of negative feedback which contradicts group consensus results in rationalisation in order to excuse away any disagreeable information.An unquestioned belief in the inherent morality of the group which leads members to be convinced of the logical correctness of what it is doing and to ignore honest or moral consequences of decisions.The groups desire to maintain consensus can lead to negative stereotyping of opponents or people outside the group, or to the acceptance of change.There is pressure on individual members to conform and reach consensus so that minority or unpopular ideas may be suppressed.Each member of the group may impose self-censorship in order to suppress their own objectives, or personal doubts or disagreements.As a result of self-censorship, there is an illusion of unanimity with a lack of uttered dissent and a false sense of unity.In the unlikely concomitant of dissent or contrary information, this will give rise to the emergence of sagaciousness guards who act as filters, guarding group draws, deflecting opposition and applying pressure on deviants. (Mullins, 2008)Individual behaviour as a group memberPsychological research on creativity has tended to focus on individuals and intra-individual factors (e.g., motivation Amabile, 1982). Fords (1996) Theory of Creative Individual Action also links the work environment with intra-individual factors to explain individual creativity. Fords hypothesis describes three individual characteristics which overlap conceptually with the components of Amabiles (1988, 1997) model, via sense making, motivation, and knowledge and ability. Individual personality makes a big impact on his psychological behaviour in an organisation. Also all the employees has to be motivated by some or the other ways. There may be some of the differences while working in a group but individual has to ignore them. All the group members are there for a common purpose so everyone sh ould know their role and accordingly they have to perform while they are in a group.No individual should back-off at last movement while working in a group. By doing this he can develop psychologically as well as potentially. He can get different ideas from all other group members. He wont be restricted to a limit, and also can work better as a group member. This is because we know no individual is perfect and group can be, this says group members can hide weaknesses of a individual. But for performing better in a group individual should be motivated all the time. Maslows theory of motivation gives an idea how individual can be motivated.MotivationMotivation is the factor that every group leader should give to their group member. Motivation is better explained by Maslows theory.Maslows theoryAbraham Maslow attempted to formulate a needs-based framework of human motivation and based upon his clinical experiences with humans.From Maslows theory of motivation, modern leaders and execut ive managers find means ofemployee motivationfor the purposes of employee and workforce management. According to this theory humans are motivated by unsatisfied needs and certain lower needs. All individuals should fulfil physiological needs first. If these needs are not satisfied then there are chances for an individual to leave behind the organisation, as he is de-motivated from the organisation. After completing these needs other higher level needs should be completed like he should be safe from other things which are in and out of the organisation. And the hierarchy goes on till Self-Actualization. Hence Abraham Maslows model indicates that basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be satisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfilment are pursued. (Anonymus, Abraham Maslow Biography, 2005)Peer PressurePeer pressureis a change inattitudes,values, orbehaviourin person toconformto groupnorms (Anonymus, 2010). This person cannot be the membe r of the group. Peer pressure can be because of change in anything in the organisation. This can be a environment change or change in need. And because of this pressure group member leaves the group and may join other group which he dont like to be a member of that group, and thus they behave adversely concerning that groups behaviours. Peer pressure can cause people to do things they would not normally do, e.g. start drinking, may take least interest in the organisation, etc.Group ConflictGroup conflict can occurs when there is difference in opinions within the group member. Conflict in a group can occur because of following reasons age, race, gender, education, functional background, and tenure. And because of this some time we feel to stay away from a group. This type of conflict can be seen in formal group. But thats not a case of informal group all the group member knows each other so they are understanding and many a times informal group may be of same age group and same kind of education so due to this reason the rate of conflict reduces or many times conflict does not take place. There is also conflict in the informal groups but this type of conflict does not last for more than a day.ExperienceThis I can say with my own experience, I have been a member of a informal group while I was in my college, I was a member of cultural committee of the college from five years. Till completed my graduation. We apply to organise the college festival called Utkarsh, I always took part in event handling stuff. And for last couple of years I was elected as a co-ordinator of Roars, with is IT and comp-science festival under Utkarsh. There were almost 15-20 peoples group who used to be a member if Roars and Utkarsh, so while organising a festival there are always conflict between a group members that which event will take place and where will it be held in the college, this is because there are almost 4000 people turning up for the event hence every one want to keep m ore event and all the event at one place hence there are conflict between group members. But once everything is solved there are no personal regrets in any ones mind. This is a big advantage of been a member of a informal group.In informal group also there should be a person who manages the group. In my case I been a co-ordinator had to look after the group. I had to look after personal problems with some other group members some other problems group member has while organising the festival. In intra group conflict I had to manage to solve the problem. This I was doing on the Maslows theory. If they need any necessary things for the event I typed to fulfil that by demanding it from the college governance. The authorities should give them some safety measures by asking professors to take the lectures which they have missed and dont mark them as absent while they are working for the college festival as well as providing them with equal standards so that everyone gets a chance to give their own opinion. To provide them a self esteem so that they can also be confident while working for a college festival.ConclusionWork done by individual always talk time then work done by a group. Everything depends on the individual personality and his psychological and potential behaviour. Say now there is a word written impossible one individual may read it as impossible and other may read it as i m possible. Hence it depends on how the individual think. But working in a group always helps for individual to development himself. He gets to know how other individuals in a group think and what is the approach of other people on a particular work. There is always conflict in a group individuals should take these in a positive way as the group conflict is because of the betterment of the work which group is doing. The conflict in a group can be minimised if the group is an informal group. This is because all the group member knows each other and they are almost of same age so there thinking are also almost same. There should be a leader in a group to control the group. Group leader should always motivate people so that people can work in better way. Finally, I think group is always a better option to work rather than working as an individual.

American Flag :: essays research papers

The United States lurch is the third oldest of the National Standards of the world older than the amalgamation Jack of Britain or the Tricolor of France.The flag was first authorized by Congress June 14, 1777. This date is now observed as stick Day end-to-end America.The flag was first flown from Fort Stanwix, on the site of the present city of Rome, New York, on August 3, 1777. It was first under fire for three days later in the Battle of Oriskany, August 6, 1777.It was first decreed that there should be a star and a stripe for each state, making thirteen of both for the states at the time had just been erected from the original thirteen colonies.The colors of the Flag may be thus explained The red is for valor, zeal and fervency the gaberdine for hope purity, cleanliness of life, and rectitude of conduct the blue, the color of heaven, for reverence to God, loyalty, sincerity, justice and truth.The star (an ancient symbol of India, Persia and Egypt) symbolized dominion and so vereignty, as well as lofty aspirations. The conformation of the stars within the union, one star for each state, is emblematic of our Federal Constitution, which reserves to the States their individual sovereignty except as to rights delegated by them to the Federal Government.The symbolism of the Flag was thus interpreted by Washington We take the stars from Heaven, the red from our mother country, separating it by white mark, thus showing that we have separated from her, and the white stripes shall go down to posterity representing Liberty.In 1791, Vermont, and in 1792, Kentucky were admitted to the Union and the number of stars and stripes was raised to fifteen in correspondence. As other states came into the Union it became unadorned there would be too many stripes. So in 1818 Congress enacted that the number of stripes be reduced and restricted henceforth to thirteen representing the thirteen original states while a star should be added for each succeeding state. That law is the law of today.The name Old Glory was given to our National Flag August 10, 1831, by Captain William Driver of the brig Charles Doggett.The Flag was first carried in battle at the Brandywine, September 11, 1777. It first flew over foreign territory January 28, 1778, at Nassau, Bahama Islands Fort Nassau having been captured by the American in the course of the war for independence.

A Rose for Emily Essays -- A Rose For Emily, William Faulkner

A Rose for Emily is a wonderful short story written by William Faulkner. It begins with at the end of Miss Emilys spirit and told from an unknown person who close probably would be the voice of the town. Emily Grierson is a protagonist in this story and the life of her used as an parable about the changes of a South town in Jefferson after the civil war, early 1900s. Beginning from the title, William Faulkner uses symbolism such as house, Miss Emily as a commemoration , her hair, Homer Barron, and raze Emilys rose to expresses the passing of time and the changes. The central theme of the story is decay in the town, the house, and in Miss Emily herself. It shows the style in which we all grow old and decay and there is nothing permanent except change. Miss Emilys house is one of the important symbols which pretend the past because it rejects updating like Miss Emily. The house had once been white, decorated with cupolas and spires and scrolled balconies in the heavily lightsom e style of the seventies, set on what had once been our most select street (209).Then it ages with Emily an eyesore among eyesores (209). She had once been a slender figure in white (211) and later she looks bloated, like a body long submerged in motionless water... her eyes lost in the fatty ridges of her face... (210). She represents the Old South by her actions. She avoided to believe that time were changing and did not join the new society. She even does not come out. One example of Emily lives in the past is when she refuses to pay the tax. During Miss Emilys funeral she referred to another symbol as a fallen monument (209), which could mean she was once beautiful and wealthy but with time she grew old and became poor. Also it port... ... the nostrils, we saw a long strand of iron-gray hair (215).Considered in above symbols, Faulkners story gives the idea with the changes of appearances and life of Emily Grierson by the time as an allegory for the changes in the old fashioned Southern ideals after the Civil War. stock-still though Emily is a strong woman, at the same time she is the victim of her resistance to change of time while the world went on without her and misperception of the people about her. In conclusion, this story A Rose for Emily tells the life, the love, the time, hopes, and destruction of Emily Grierson by using intelligent symbols. Emily never accepts that the changing world around her might be benefiting for her life The newer generation became the backbone and the spirit of the town (214), but Emily always in conflict with both her heart and her community, and modern world.